XI.
Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus corporum varii atque ex eo argumenta. Namque rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem adseverant; Silurum colorati vultus, torti plerumque crines et posita contra Hispania Hiberos veteres traiecisse easque sedes occupasse fidem faciunt; proximi Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi, seu procurrentibus in diversa terris positio caeli corporibus habitum dedit. In universum tamen aestimanti Gallos vicinam insulam occupasse credibile est. Eorum sacra deprehendas ac superstitionum persuasiones; sermo haud multum diversus, in deposcendis periculis eadem audacia et, ubi advenere, in detrectandis eadem formido. Plus tamen ferociae Britanni praeferunt, ut quos nondum longa pax emollierit. Nam Gallos quoque in bellis floruisse accepimus; mox segnitia cum otio intravit, amissa virtute pariter ac libertate. Quod Britannorum olim victis evenit: ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt.
11.
Now, as for the people of the island, who the first inhabitants were, whether natives or outsiders, is not known for certain, as is to be expected among barbarians. They are physically diverse and from this certain deductions may be drawn. Clearly the red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia are proof of German descent. The dark features, the usually curly hair of the Silures, and the position of Spain opposite them, indicate that their Iberian ancestors crossed over and occupied the districts they now inhabit. In regions next to Gaul people are like Gauls, either because of the enduring influence of heredity or because in lands extending outwards toward each other the climate itself is productive of certain traits in the body. But, on the whole, it seems plausible to me that the Gauls occupied the neighbouring island. Gallic religious and superstitious practices are clearly detectable, the language is almost the same, as well as the audacity in courting danger, and, when it comes, same is the alacrity to get out of its way. Britons, however, are more daunting in battle, since they have not yet been softened by long years of peace. For history tells us that once the Gauls also excelled in war. After a while, following on the leisure of peacetime, apathy crept in and valour was lost, together with independence. That has happened to such parts of Britain as were brought under Roman control long ago. In the rest of the island, Britons are still what the Gauls once were.
XII.
In pedite robur; quaedam nationes et curru proeliantur. Honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. Olim regibus parebant, nunc per principes factionibus et studiis trahuntur. Nec aliud adversus validissimas gentis pro nobis utilius quam quod in commune non consulunt. Rarus duabus tribusve civitatibus ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus: ita singuli pugnant, universi vincuntur. Caelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum; asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram; nox clara et extrema Britanniae parte brevis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine internoscas. Quod si nubes non officiant, aspici per noctem solis fulgorem, nec occidere et exurgere, sed transire adfirmant. Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra non erigunt tenebras, infraque caelum et sidera nox cadit. Solum praeter oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris oriri sueta patiens frugum pecudumque fecundum: tarde mitescunt, cito proveniunt; eademque utriusque rei causa, multus umor terrarum caelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia metalla, pretium victoriae. Gignit et Oceanus margarita, sed subfusca ac liventia. Quidam artem abesse legentibus arbitrantur; nam in rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis avelli, in Britannia, prout expulsa sint, colligi: ego facilius crediderim naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis avaritiam.
12.
Their strength is in infantry. Certain tribes also fight from chariots. The charioteer is higher in rank and the dependants’ task is to protect him. They were once governed by kings, but now are fragmented under chieftains by factions and ambitions. We Romans have nothing more useful than this in our wars against such formidable tribes, namely their unwillingness to make common cause among themselves. Rarely do two or three states agree to beat back a common enemy. Accordingly, they fight alone and all are conquered. The weather is foul with overcast skies and rain, but the cold is not severe. The days are longer than in our part of the world. The nights are bright and, in the extreme north of the island, short, so that the interval between dusk and dawn is barely discernible. For they say that, if there are no clouds obstructing the sun, its brilliance is seen through the night and that it does not set or rise, but simply crosses the sky. Obviously, the distant flat reaches of the earth do not create enough darkness with their shadow and night never reaches the sky and the stars. Except for olives and grapes and other fruits usual in warmer regions, the soil is suitable for planting and teeming with cattle. Crops mature slowly, but push up rapidly. The reason in either case is the same: abundant moisture in the soil and in the sky. Britain produces gold, silver, and other metals, the coveted prize of conquest. In addition, the sea yields pearls, but they are rather dark and have a bluish hue. Some people think pearl-fishers here are unskilled, for in the Red Sea pearls are wrenched from the shell still alive, but in Britain they are collected after they are expelled. For my part, I’d sooner believe in the imperfect nature of British pearls than in the lack of greed in Romans.
XIII.
Ipsi Britanni dilectum ac tributa et iniuncta imperii munia impigre obeunt, si iniuriae absint: has aegre tolerant, iam domiti ut pareant, nondum ut serviant. Igitur primus omnium Romanorum divus Iulius cum exercitu Britanniam ingressus, quamquam prospera pugna terruerit incolas ac litore potitus sit, potest videri ostendisse posteris, non tradidisse. Mox bella civilia et in rem publicam versa principum arma, ac longa oblivio Britanniae etiam in pace: consilium id divus Augustus vocabat, Tiberius praeceptum. Agitasse Gaium Caesarem de intranda Britannia satis constat, ni velox ingenio mobili paenitentiae, et ingentes adversus Germaniam conatus frustra fuissent. Divus Claudius auctor iterati operis, transvectis legionibus auxiliisque et adsumpto in partem rerum Vespasiano, quod initium venturae mox fortunae fuit: domitae gentes, capti reges et monstratus fatis Vespasianus.
13.
The people themselves willingly comply with the levies, the tributes, and the other obligations placed on them by the Roman government, but only if there are no abuses of power. Vanquished, they accept obedience but not servitude. In fact, the divine Julius, the first Roman to enter Britain with an army, though he struck fear into the inhabitants and occupied the coastal areas, can be regarded as having shown the path to conquest, rather than having bequeathed a conquered island. Then civil war came, when the leaders’ arms were bent against the state, and a long period of indifference towards Britain, even in peace, followed. Divine Augustus called this wise strategy; Tiberius called it an inherited mandate. There is little doubt that Gaius Caesar had contemplated invading Britain, but he was of a flighty disposition and quick to abandon plans. Besides, his vast undertaking against Germany had all come to nought. The divine Claudius, the promoter of a renewed attempt, conveyed over the legions and the auxiliary troops and chose Vespasian as his partner in the campaign. This was soon to be the beginning of Vespasian’s rise to fame. Tribes were conquered, kings were captured, and destiny propelled Vespasian onto the world’s stage.
XIV.
Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus ac subinde Ostorius Scapula, uterque bello egregius: redactaque paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars Britanniae, addita insuper veteranorum colonia. Quaedam civitates Cogidumno regi donatae (is ad nostram usque memoriam fidissimus mansit), vetere ac iam pridem recepta populi Romani consuetudine, ut haberet instrumenta servitutis et reges. Mox Didius Gallus parta a prioribus continuit, paucis admodum castellis in ulteriora promotis, per quae fama aucti officii quaereretur. Didium Veranius excepit, isque intra annum extinctus est. Suetonius hinc Paulinus biennio prosperas res habuit, subactis nationibus firmatisque praesidiis; quorum fiducia Monam insulam ut vires rebellibus ministrantem adgressus terga occasioni patefecit.
14.
The first governor of consular rank to be appointed was Aulus Plautius, followed by Ostorius Scapula, both excellent army commanders. The parts of Britain nearest to us were gradually reduced to the status of a province and a colony of veterans was also founded. King Cogidumnus, who has remained loyal to us down to our days, had certain states assigned to him, in accordance with an ancient and long-accepted Roman practice aimed at securing instruments of control over other peoples, including kings. Next, Didius Gallus maintained the gains of his predecessors, only moving forward a few forts into more distant parts, to secure fame for expanding the conquest. Veranius succeeded Didius, but died within the year. Then Suetonius Paulinus had things going well for two years, bringing more tribes under control and reinforcing the garrisons, but, emboldened by his success, he invested the island of Mona, a source of support to the rebels, and left his rear open to attack.
XV.
Namque absentia legati remoto metu Britanni agitare inter se mala servitutis, conferre iniurias et interpretando accendere: nihil profici patientia nisi ut graviora tamquam ex facili tolerantibus imperentur. Singulos sibi olim reges fuisse, nunc binos imponi, e quibus legatus in sanguinem, procurator in bona saeviret. Aeque discordiam praepositorum, aeque concordiam subiectis exitiosam. Alterius manum centuriones, alterius servos vim et contumelias miscere. Nihil iam cupiditati, nihil libidini exceptum. In proelio fortiorem esse qui spoliet: nunc ab ignavis plerumque et imbellibus eripi domos, abstrahi liberos, iniungi dilectus, tamquam mori tantum pro patria nescientibus. Quantulum enim transisse militum, si sese Britanni numerent? Sic Germanias excussisse iugum: et flumine, non Oceano defendi. Sibi patriam coniuges parentes, illis avaritiam et luxuriam causas belli esse. Recessuros, ut divus Iulius recessisset, modo virtutem maiorum suorum aemularentur. Neve proelii unius aut alterius eventu pavescerent: plus impetus felicibus, maiorem constantiam penes miseros esse. Iam Britannorum etiam deos misereri, qui Romanum ducem absentem, qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum detinerent; iam ipsos, quod difficillimum fuerit, deliberare. Porro in eius modi consiliis periculosius esse deprehendi quam audere.
15.
In fact, the governor’s absence, and with it the removal of fear, gave the Britons scope to discuss and compare the evils of servitude and, in the process, to fan the fires of discontent. They argued that nothing was gained by silence, save to have heavier demands placed on them, as on men resigned to their fate. In the past kings had come to them one at a time, now they were foisted on them in pairs: a governor to drain their blood and a procurator to drain their wealth. Both their masters’ quarrels and their harmony were equally ruinous to them. Their bullies –the centurions of the one and the slaves of the other– mingled insults with injury. Nothing was any longer safe from their cupidity and lust. In battle, the stronger man is by right the despoiler, but now downright milksops ransacked their homes, tore their children from them, and imposed levies as though their sons could die for any cause, except for their own country. They asked themselves of the Roman army that had crossed over how large it really was, if Britons counted their own numbers? It was thus that Germany had shaken off the yoke, yet they had just a river, not the ocean, to protect them. Their reasons for fighting were country, wives, parents; the Romans only fought for greed and love of luxury. They would withdraw, just as the divine Julius had withdrawn, if Britons equalled their fathers in valor. They should not be intimidated by one or two reversals. The fortunate have more assurance, the unfortunate more staying power. Even the gods were taking pity on Britain, who were keeping the governor away and his army bogged down in another island. They themselves had already taken the most difficult step: bringing the matter up for deliberation. From there on, having proceedings such as theirs detected was indeed more dangerous than bold action.
XVI.
His atque talibus in vicem instincti, Boudicca generis regii femina duce (neque enim sexum in imperiis discernunt) sumpsere universi bellum; ac sparsos per castella milites consectati, expugnatis praesidiis ipsam coloniam invasere ut sedem servitutis, nec ullum in barbaris [ingeniis] saevitiae genus omisit ira et victoria. Quod nisi Paulinus cognito provinciae motu propere subvenisset, amissa Britannia foret; quam unius proelii fortuna veteri patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma plerisque, quos conscientia defectionis et proprius ex legato timor agitabat, ne quamquam egregius cetera adroganter in deditos et ut suae cuiusque iniuriae ultor durius consuleret. Missus igitur Petronius Turpilianus tamquam exorabilior et delictis hostium novus eoque paenitentiae mitior, compositis prioribus nihil ultra ausus Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. Trebellius segnior et nullis castorum experimentis, comitate quadam curandi provinciam tenuit. Didicere iam barbari quoque ignoscere vitiis blandientibus, et interventus civilium armorum praebuit iustam segnitiae excusationem: sed discordia laboratum, cum adsuetus expeditionibus miles otio lasciviret. Trebellius, fuga ac latebris vitata exercitus ira, indecorus atque humilis precario mox praefuit, ac velut pacta exercitus licentia, ducis salute, [et] seditio sine sanguine stetit. Nec Vettius Bolanus, manentibus adhuc civilibus bellis, agitavit Britanniam disciplina: eadem inertia erga hostis, similis petulantia castrorum, nisi quod innocens Bolanus et nullis delictis invisus caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis.
16.
Fired up by this and similar language, the whole country rose up under the leadership of Boudicca , a woman of royal blood, as no distinction of sex is made among their rulers. They hunted down and captured the soldiers scattered among the Roman forts and garrisons and invaded the colony itself, in their eyes the center of tyranny. Flushed with victory and thirsty for revenge, they overlooked no form of cruelty known to barbarian minds, and had not Paulinus, on hearing of the revolt, come promptly to the rescue, Britain would have been lost. The issue of a single battle restored the province to its former submission. A good many remained in arms, made uneasy by qualms as to their conduct in the rebellion and by real fear of the governor, lest he, reasonable though he was, should proceed severely against those who surrendered, as one out to take revenge for all the wrongs he himself had received. In consequence, Petronius Turpilianus was sent to the province as more sympathetic to the Britons and a stranger to their crimes, and, for that reason, more responsive to their repentance. He settled outstanding issues and, without embarking on further conquest, handed over the province to Trebellius Maximus. Trebellius was not an over-active man, had no military experience, and his government of the province was fairly relaxed. Even the natives now learned to indulge in forbidden pleasures and the disruptions caused by civil war offered a good excuse for Trebellius’ apathy. But there were mutinies, as the troops, accustomed to being on campaigns, grew demoralized by inaction. Trebellius, a disgraced, humiliated figure, who had escaped the fury of his troops by hiding, soon was governing his soldiers by entreaty. The army’s freedom to do as it pleased was accepted in exchange, as it were, for the governor’s life, so the mutiny petered out without bloodshed. With civil war still on, Vettius Bolanus did not saddle Britain with discipline either. Inaction on the war front and turbulence in the camp persisted, with the exception that Bolanus, a likable man who had done nothing to deserve hate, had secured affection as a substitute for authority.
XVII.
Sed ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britanniam recuperavit, magni duces, egregii exercitus, minuta hostium spes. Et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Cerialis, Brigantum civitatem, quae numerosissima provinciae totius perhibetur, adgressus. Multa proelia, et aliquando non incruenta; magnamque Brigantum partem aut victoria amplexus est aut bello. Et Cerialis quidem alterius successoris curam famamque obruisset: subiit sustinuitque molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit, super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.
17.
But when Vespasian regained Britain, and the rest of the world as well, the arrival of capable generals and of seasoned armies gave the enemy little room for hope. Straightaway Petilius Cerialis struck terror into them by attacking the nation of the Brigantes, known as the largest tribe of the entire province. Many battles were fought, some of them bloody, and Cerialis occupied most of the territory of the Brigantes, either by defeating them in open battle or by using the threat of war as a deterrent. He would have indeed obscured the exploits and fame of any other successor, but Julius Frontinus, his successor, showed himself a great man, as far as greatness was then allowed. He took over from Cerialis and carried on with the mighty task. He subdued the Silures, a valiant and bellicose nation, overcoming both the gallantry of the foe and the rough terrain of their country.
XVIII.
Hunc Britanniae statum, has bellorum vices media iam aestate transgressus Agricola invenit, cum et milites velut omissa expeditione ad securitatem et hostes ad occasionem verterentur. Ordovicum civitas haud multo ante adventum eius alam in finibus suis agentem prope universam obtriverat, eoque initio erecta provincia. Et quibus bellum volentibus erat, probare exemplum ac recentis legati animum opperiri, cum Agricola, quamquam transvecta aestas, sparsi per provinciam numeri, praesumpta apud militem illius anni quies, tarda et contraria bellum incohaturo, et plerisque custodiri suspecta potius videbatur, ire obviam discrimini statuit; contractisque legionum vexillis et modica auxiliorum manu, quia in aequum degredi Ordovices non audebant, ipse ante agmen, quo ceteris par animus simili periculo esset, erexit aciem. Caesaque prope universa gente, non ignarus instandum famae ac, prout prima cessissent, terrorem ceteris fore, Monam insulam, cuius possessione revocatum Paulinum rebellione totius Britanniae supra memoravi, redigere in potestatem animo intendit. Sed, ut in subitis consiliis, naves deerant: ratio et constantia ducis transvexit. Depositis omnibus sarcinis lectissimos auxiliarium, quibus nota vada et patrius nandi usus, quo simul seque et arma et equos regunt, ita repente inmisit, ut obstupefacti hostes, qui classem, qui navis, qui mare expectabant, nihil arduum aut invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibus. Ita petita pace ac dedita insula clarus ac magnus haberi Agricola, quippe cui ingredienti provinciam, quod tempus alii per ostentationem et officiorum ambitum transigunt, labor et periculum placuisset. Nec Agricola prosperitate rerum in vanitatem usus, expeditionem aut victoriam vocabat victos continuisse; ne laureatis quidem gesta prosecutus est, sed ipsa dissimulatione famae famam auxit, aestimantibus quanta futuri spe tam magna tacuisset.
18.
This was the situation and these the fortunes of war Agricola found when he crossed over about the middle of summer, when the troops were hoping for a restful time ahead, thinking operations were over for that year, and the enemy was hoping for an opportunity to attack. The Ordovices, shortly before his arrival, had nearly wiped out a whole squadron of cavalry stationed among them and the province was aroused by this initial success. Those who wanted war approved the deed and waited to see the reaction of the new commander. On his side, Agricola, though the summer was over, units were scattered throughout the province, and soldiers were sure they would see no action that year—all things that would hamper and delay him in beginning a campaign—decided to take the risk, against the general view that he should stay put and guard the contested districts. He took selected detachments from the legions and a small force of auxiliaries; then, seeing that the Ordovices did not dare come down from the hills to open battle, he deployed his troops on the slopes with himself in front of the line, so as to inspire his men with equal courage before the common danger. The whole tribe was nearly exterminated. Aware that he must strengthen his prestige and that fear of him in the rest of Britain was going to be proportionate to his initial successes, he resolved to subdue the island of Mona, from the conquest of which, as I mentioned before, Paulinus had been recalled by the general uprising. He had no ships available—his sudden decision left no time to provide for any—yet the ingenuity and resolve of the general found a way to get across. He picked the best men that he could find among his auxiliary troops, who knew the fords and had a special way of swimming, peculiar to their nation, which enables them to retain control of their own motions, of their weapons, and of their horses, all at the same time. make the official rounds), had clearly opted for toil and danger instead. He did not use success to sing his own praises, nor call campaign and victory having restrained a conquered people. He did not even adorn his despatches with laurel when reporting the operations he had conducted. Yet the very pains he took to avoid publicity made him more famous in the eyes of many who could but wonder how high the future aspirations of a man must be who could pass such exploits under silence.
XIX.
Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens, simulque doctus per aliena experimenta parum profici armis, si iniuriae sequerentur, causas bellorum statuit excidere. A se suisque orsus primum domum suam coercuit, quod plerisque haud minus arduum est quam provinciam regere. Nihil per libertos servosque publicae rei, non studiis privatis nec ex commendatione aut precibus centurionem militesve adscire, sed optimum quemque fidissimum putare. Omnia scire, non omnia exsequi. Parvis peccatis veniam, magnis severitatem commodare; nec poena semper, sed saepius paenitentia contentus esse; officiis et administrationibus potius non peccaturos praeponere, quam damnare cum peccassent. Frumenti et tributorum exactionem aequalitate munerum mollire, circumcisis quae in quaestum reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur. Namque per ludibrium adsidere clausis horreis et emere ultro frumenta ac luere pretio cogebantur. Divortia itinerum et longinquitas regionum indicebatur, ut civitates proximis hibernis in remota et avia deferrent, donec quod omnibus in promptu erat paucis lucrosum fieret.
19.
In other respects, Agricola was very conscious of the mood of the province and, at the same time the experience of others taught him that little is ever achieved by force if it leads to oppression, he decided to eliminate the causes of war. Beginning with himself and those next to him, he first established order in his own house, a task more difficult for most than the administration of a province. He handled no official business through freedmen or slaves. He would never advance a centurion or a private from personal bias or in response to recommendations or entreaties, but chose anyone whom he thought best and most loyal. He knew everything, but did not always act on what he knew. Minor offences he treated leniently, serious ones more severely. Penitence he generally found more satisfactory than punishment, and would rather appoint to the various administrative offices men not likely to offend, than punish an offender. He tried to soften the exaction of corn and tributes by a more equitable distribution of the burden, and he put an end to all the trickery devised for greater profits, which was more resented than the tribute itself. In fact, the islanders until then were forced to undergo the indignity of having to wait outside locked granaries to buy back their expropriated grain, and with the payment of grain they did not receive discharged the tribute. Rough by-roads and faraway places were assigned to them by the authorities in such a way that tribes right next to a Roman winter camp had to deliver corn to distant and inaccessible districts, and, in the end, what was readily available to all became gain for just a few.
XX.
Haec primo statim anno comprimendo egregiam famam paci circumdedit, quae vel incuria vel intolerantia priorum haud minus quam bellum timebatur. Sed ubi aestas advenit, contracto exercitu multus in agmine, laudare modestiam, disiectos coercere; loca castris ipse capere, aestuaria ac silvas ipse praetemptare; et nihil interim apud hostis quietum pati, quo minus subitis excursibus popularetur; atque ubi satis terruerat, parcendo rursus invitamenta pacis ostentare. Quibus rebus multae civitates, quae in illum diem ex aequo egerant, datis obsidibus iram posuere et praesidiis castellisque circumdatae, et tanta ratione curaque, ut nulla ante Britanniae nova pars [pariter] inlacessita transierit.
20.
By the quick removal of these abuses within his first year of government, Agricola restored peace, which the indifference and intolerance of former governors had made no less fearful than war, to its good fame. But when summer came, he assembled his troops and spent much of his time among them, praising good conduct and curbing sloth. He would himself choose the location of the camp and be the first to scout new places, such as estuaries and forests. Meanwhile, he gave the enemy no respite to preempt any sudden attack on their part. When he had cowed them sufficiently, by his leniency he would make manifest to them the advantages of peace. Because of this, many states, which until then had been independent, gave hostages and abandoned their hostile posture. Garrisons and forts were established around these states with such skill and care that these new parts of Britain passed over to us without being molested by neighbouring states, something that had never occurred before.