XXXI.
At in Britannia P. Ostorium pro praetore turbidae res excepere, effusis in agrum sociorum hostibus eo violentius quod novum ducem exercitu ignoto et coepta hieme iturum obviam non rebantur. ille gnarus primis eventibus metum aut fiduciam gigni, citas cohortis rapit et caesis qui restiterant, disiectos consectatus, ne rursus conglobarentur infensaque et infida pax non duci, non militi requiem permitteret, detrahere arma suspectis cunctaque castris [cis Tris]antonam et Sabrinam fluvios cohibere parat. quod primi Iceni abnuere, valida gens nec proeliis contusi, quia societatem nostram volentes accesserant. hisque auctoribus circumiectae nationes locum pugnae delegere saeptum agresti aggere et aditu angusto, ne pervius equiti foret. ea munimenta dux Romanus, quamquam sine robore legionum socialis copias ducebat, perrumpere adgreditur et distributis cohortibus turmas quoque peditum ad munia accingit. tunc dato signo perfringunt aggerem suisque claustris impeditos turbant. atque illi conscientia rebellionis et obsaeptis effugiis multa et clara facinora fecere: qua pugna filius legati M. Ostorius servati civis decus meruit.
31.
In Britain, the pro-praetor Publius Ostorius was facing trouble upon entering office. Hostile tribes were spreading over the territory of allied nations, thinking it was unlikely that a new governor, with an army he did not know, would march against them that late in the year. He, well aware that his initial moves would either strike fear or encourage impudence among the rebels, hurried forward with his light cohorts, stamping out resistance wherever found and hunting down those who fled. To hinder the rebels from regrouping and avoid a precarious and deceptive peace, that would give no respite to himself and to his troops, he planned to disarm any tribe suspected of having seditious intentions and to fortify the line from the Trent river to the Severn with army camps. Revolt against the threat of disarmament began among the Iceni, a strong tribe, still untouched by war, since they had voluntarily become our allies. Influenced by their example, the neighboring tribes selected a field of battle walled around by a rudimentary earthwork, with a narrow access to the inside to fend off cavalry attacks. Ostorius opted to storm the fortified position without the support of the legions, relying solely on the auxiliary forces he had with him for the assault. Having assigned the cohorts to their positions, he also reinforced them with the men of the cavalry, now fighting as infantry. At the signal, the troops broke through the earth barrier, sowing confusion among the defenders, now trapped inside their own defenses. Yet, the Iceni, conscious of having revolted, and without an escape route, fought valiantly to the bitter end. In this battle Ostorius’ son earned the honors due to soldiers who save a citizen’s life.
XXXII.
Ceterum clade Icenorum compositi qui bellum inter et pacem dubitabant, et ductus in Decangos exercitus. vastati agri, praedae passim actae, non ausis aciem hostibus, vel si ex occulto carpere agmen temptarent, punito dolo. iamque ventum haud procul mari, quod Hiberniam insulam aspectat, cum ortae apud Brigantas discordiae retraxere ducem, destinationis certum, ne nova moliretur nisi prioribus firmatis. et Brigantes quidem, paucis qui arma coeptabant interfectis, in reliquos data venia, resedere: Silurum gens non atrocitate, non clementia mutabatur, quin bellum exerceret castrisque legionum premenda foret. id quo promptius veniret, colonia Camulodunum valida veteranorum manu deducitur in agros captivos, subsidium adversus rebellis et imbuendis sociis ad officia legum.
32.
As for the rest, the tribes, undecided between peace and war, were convinced by the fate of the Iceni to remain quiet. The army was led against the Cangi, whose entire territory was devastated and pillaged without mercy. They either did not dare challenge our forces in open battle or, if they used hit-and-miss tactics to harass us, they were made to suffer for their cunning. Already the advance had almost reached the coast facing Ireland, when trouble erupted among the Brigantes, forcing Ostorius to retrace his steps, in keeping with his policy never to undertake new conquests unless the previous ones had been made secure. In fact, the Brigantes, once the few who had taken up arms were suppressed and the rest pardoned, became peaceful again. The Siluri, however, would be moved by neither terror nor leniency from their determination to fight and could only be controlled by stationing the legions among them. To achieve that goal, a robust colony of veterans was settled at Camulodunum on land in Roman hands, as protection against revolts and also to familiarize the provincials with the rule of law.
XXXIII.
Itum inde in Siluras, super propriam ferociam Carataci viribus confisos, quem multa ambigua, multa prospera extulerant ut certeros Britannorum imperatores praemineret. sed tum astu locorum fraude prior, vi militum inferior, transfert bellum in Ordovicas, additisque qui pacem nostram metuebant, novissimum casum experitur, sumpto ad proelium loco, ut aditus abscessus, cuncta nobis importuna et suis in melius essent, hinc montibus arduis, et si qua clementer accedi poterant, in modum valli saxa praestruit: et praefluebat amnis vado incerto, catervaeque armatorum pro munimentis constiterant.
33.
Operations were now directed against the Silures, whose native ferocity was intensified by their trust in the powers of Caratacus. He has emerged as the top Briton leader by not losing and even winning many battles and by evening out his inferior strength in men with superior strategy and the exploitation of the treacherous terrain of the country. By a deft move, the war was now diverted to the land of the Ordovices, where, on being joined by all those who could not abide the thought of a peace on Roman terms, he ventured everything on one battle. The place he chose for the encounter was one that would favor his men with complete ease of advance and retreat, but would be arduous for ours. Hence, the place was up on steep hills and, if the approach was gentle in places, he had them blocked with rocks in the manner of a rampart. Also, a river was in front of his position, the crossing of which was dangerous. Here, along these defenses, his armed columns formed up for battle.
XXXIV.
Ad hoc gentium ductores circumire hortari, firmare animos minuendo metu, accendenda spe aliisque belli incitamentis: enimvero Caratacus huc illuc volitans illum diem, illam aciem testabatur aut reciperandae libertatis aut servitutis aeternae initium fore; vocabatque nomina maiorum, qui dictatorem Caesarem pepulissent, quorum virtute vacui a securibus et tributis intemerata coniugum et liberorum corpora retinerent. haec atque talia dicenti adstrepere vulgus, gentili quisque religione obstringi, non telis, non vulneribus cessuros.
34.
Moreover, the leaders went among the ranks of their tribes to encourage the men and steady their resolve by downplaying their fears, by stimulating hope, and by omitting no incitement to valor. Caratacus, to be sure, was everywhere, exclaiming that that day and that battle would be either the prelude of liberty regained or of unending slavery. By name, he called upon their forefathers, by whom the despot Caesar had been repulsed, and to whose bravery they owed their freedom from the tribute and Roman exaction and the unsullied preservation of their wives and children. As he addressed them with these and similar appeals, the massed bands responded with strepitous approval. Each man engaged himself by his tribal oath never to back away from the steel of the enemy or from wounds.
XXXV.
Obstupefecit ea alacritas ducem Romanum; simul obiectus amnis, additum vallum, imminentia iuga, nihil nisi atrox et propugnatoribus frequens terrebat. sed miles proelium poscere, cuncta vurtute expugnabilia clamitare; praefectique [et] tribuni paria disserentes ardorem exercitus intendebant. tum Ostorius, circumspectis quae impenetrabilia quaeque pervia, ducit infensos amnemque haud difficulter evadit. ubi ventum ad aggerem, dum missilibus certabatur, plus vulnerum in nos et pleraeque caedes oriebantur: postquam facta testudine rudes et informes saxorum compages distractae parque comminus acies, decedere barbari in iuga montium. sed eo quoque inrupere ferentarius gravisque miles, illi telis adsultantes, hi conferto gradu, turbatis contra Britannorum ordinibus, apud quos nulla loricarum galearumve tegmina; et si auxiliaribus resisterent, gladiis ac pilis legionariorum, si huc verterent, spathis et hastis auxiliarium sternebantur. clara ea victoria fuit, captaque uxor et filia Carataci fratresque in deditionem accepti.
35.
The passionate zeal of the defenders dismayed Ostorius, who was greatly discouraged also by the sight of the river barring the way, of the added wall of rocks, of the menacing heights. He saw nothing that was not hostile to us and not swarming with enemy combatants. His soldiers, however, clamored for battle, protesting that valor conquers all obstacles. The prefects and tribunes supported them and further stimulated their aggressive spirit. Thus, Ostorius, after inspecting which parts of the defenses were impregnable and which were more accessible, led his eager forces into action and crossed the river with little trouble. On reaching the wall of stones, however, while the fight was limited to an exchange of missiles, injuries were greater on our side and so was the loss of men. But as soon as the soldiers arranged themselves in tortoise formation — thus protected by the interlocked shields held above their head — and quickly demolished the rudimentary wall of stones, allowing the fighting to become hand to hand on equal ground, the natives took refuge higher up in the hills. Yet, both our light and heavy cohorts continued their onward rush in hot pursuit, the first besetting the enemy with darts and other missiles, the heavy infantry advancing in serried order of battle. The ranks of the Britons were soon broken up and thrown into disarray, also because they lacked the protection of helmets and breastplates. If they opposed the auxiliary troops, they fell foul of the swords and javelins of the legions. If they turned the other way and confronted the legions, they were struck down by the sabres and lances of the auxiliaries. It was a glorious success. The crowning piece of it was the capture of Caratacus’ wife and daughter. His brothers also gave up the fight and surrendered.
XXXVI.
Ipse, ut ferme intuta sunt adversa, cum fidem Cartimanduae reginae Brigantum petivisset, vinctus ac victoribus traditus est, nono post anno quam bellum in Britannia coeptum. unde fama eius evecta insulas et proximas provincias pervagata per Italiam quoque celebrabatur, avebantque visere, quis ille tot per annos opes nostras sprevisset. ne Romae quidem ignobile Carataci nomen erat; et Caesar dum suum decus extollit, addidit gloriam victo. vocatus quippe ut ad insigne spectaclum populus: stetere in armis praetoriae cohortes campo qui castra praeiacet. tunc incedentibus regiis clientulis phalerae torques quaeque bellis externis quaesiverat traducta, mox fratres et coniunx et filia, postremo ipse ostentatus. ceterorum preces degeneres fuere ex metu: at non Caratacus aut vultu demisso aut verbis misericordiam requirens, ubi tribunali adstitit, in hunc modum locutus est.
36.
Caratacus himself, who had placed trust in the protection of Cartimandua, the queen of the Brigantes, was taken prisoner and delivered to the victors, for defeat seldom finds safe haven. The war in Britain had lasted nine years, hence the fame of this man had spread outside the British isles into the neighboring provinces and he had become a celebrity as far down as Italy, where all were impatient to see in person the warrior who for so long had defied Roman power. Not even in the city was his name anything but unknown, and the emperor, in exalting his own greatness, contributed to the prisoner’s reputation. Indeed, the public was invited as to an extraordinary spectacle and even the praetorian cohorts were drawn up in arms on the large open space in front of their camp. First the king’s smaller vassals filed by, followed by a parade of the military decorations, ornaments, and prizes he had earned in wars with other nations; next came his brothers, wife, and daughter and lastly himself. All others, moved by fear, demeaned themselves by abject supplications, but Caratacus alone did not lower his head, asked no pity, and, as he reached the imperial stand, spoke the words that follow.
XXXVII.
‘Si quanta nobilitas et fortuna mihi fuit, tanta rerum prosperarum moderatio fuisset, amicus potius in hanc urbem quam captus venissem, neque dedignatus esses claris maioribus ortum, plurimis gentibus imperitantem foedere [in] pacem accipere. praesens sors mea ut mihi informis, sic tibi magnifica est. habui equos viros, arma opes: quid mirum si haec invitus amisi? nam si vos omnibus imperitare vultis, sequitur ut omnes servitutem accipiant? si statim deditus traderer, neque mea fortuna neque tua gloria inclaruisset; et supplicium mei oblivio sequeretur: at si incolumem servaveris, aeternum exemplar clementiae ero.’ ad ea Caesar veniam ipsique et coniugi et fratribus tribuit. atque illi vinclis absoluti Agrippinam quoque, haud procul alio suggestu conspicuam, isdem quibus principem laudibus gratibusque venerati sunt. novum sane et moribus veterum insolitum, feminam signis Romanis praesidere: ipsa semet parti a maioribus suis imperii sociam ferebat.
37.
“Had I in the time of my victories possessed a sense of measure equal to my nobility and fortune, I would be here in this city today more as a friend than a captive and you would not have disdained to accept, in a peace accord, a man issued from illustrious ancestors and a ruler over several nations. My plight at present is as dreadful for me as it is wonderful for you. I had horses, men, arms, riches. Is it surprising I did not like to lose them? If you Romans want to be masters everywhere, does it therefore follow that all should accept slavery? If I were dragged before you without a fight, neither my bad luck nor your success would have become famous, and punishing me with death would soon be consigned to oblivion. If, however, you will spare my life, I will be forever a reminder of your humanity.” Moved by these words, Claudius pardoned him as well as his captured relatives. Freed from their shackles, they paid equal homage and gave praise and thanks to Claudius as well as to Agrippina, seated in full view nearby on a separate tribune. It was effectively a new thing, unknown to our forefathers, that a woman should have a place before the standards. She claimed that she herself was an active participant in the running of an empire her own forefathers had conquered.
XXXVIII.
Vocati posthac patres multa et magnifica super captivitate Carataci disseruere, neque minus id clarum quam quod Syphacem P. Scipio, Persen L. Paulus, et si qui alii vinctos reges populo Romano ostendere. censentur Ostorio triumphi insignia, prosperis ad id rebus eius, mox ambiguis, sive amoto Carataco, quasi debellatum foret, minus intenta apud nos militia fuit, sive hostes miseratione tanti regis acrius ad ultionem exarsere. praefectum castrorum et legionarias cohortis extruendis apud Siluras praesidiis relictas circumfundunt. ac ni cito nuntiis ex castellis proximis subventum foret copiarum obsidio occidione obcubuissent: praefectus tamen et octo centuriones ac promptissimus quisque e manipulis cecidere. nec multo post pabulantis nostros missasque ad subsidium turmas profligant.
38.
Afterwards, the senate was convoked and many florid speeches were heard on the capture of Caratacus, describing it as not less glorious than the exploits of P. Scipio, L. Paulus, and others who regaled the Roman people with the parade of Syphax, Perseus, and more captive kings. Triumphal ornaments were awarded to Ostorius, until then a fortunate commander, but less so later, either because military discipline became less rigid with us after Caratacus was out of the way, or because the rebels, out of compassion for a king of such stature, burned with a desire of revenge. A camp prefect and the legionary cohorts, left among the Silures to establish garrisoned forts, came under assault from all directions and would have been wiped out had not the news brought timely rescue from neighboring fortified places. Even so, the camp prefect, eight centurions, and the best soldiers were lost. Not long after, the Silures put to flight our men while foraging, including the cavalry sent to support them.
XXXIX
Tum Ostorius cohortis expeditas opposuit; nec ideo fugam sistebat, ni legiones proelium excepissent: earum robore aequata pugna, dein nobis pro meliore fuit. effugere hostes tenui damno, quia inclinabat dies. crebra hinc proelia et saepius in modum latrocinii per saltus per paludes, ut cuique sors aut virtus, temere proviso, ob iram ob praedam, iussu et aliquando ignaris ducibus. ac praecipua Silurum pervicacia, quos accendebat vulgata imperatoris Romani vox, ut quondam Sugambri excisi aut in Gallias traiecti forent, ita Silurum nomen penitus extinguendum. igitur duas auxiliaris cohortis avaritia praefectorum incautius populantis intercepere; spoliaque et captivos largiendo ceteras quoque nationes ad defectionem trahebant, cum taedio curarum fessus Ostorius concessit vita, laetis hostibus, tamquam ducem haud spernendum etsi non proelium, at certe bellum absumpsisset.
39.
In response, Ostorius countered by sending in his light cohorts but the move was not sufficient to stop the rout, had not the legions taken up the fight and established balance by their massive strength. Soon the fortunes of war were in our favor and the rebels retired in a hurry with negligeable losses, as night was approaching. This major clash was followed by a series of skirmishes — usually more like sudden incursions than regular fights – in wooded ravines and on boggy terrain, according to chance or bravery, calculation or carelessness, from hatred or greed of plunder, under order from above and often unbeknownst to those in command. The Silures were especially intractable: their fury was stoked by a pronouncement of Ostorius, who had said that the Siluri should be wiped out, on the example of the Sugambri who had been partly exterminated and what was left transferred to the Gallic provinces. In revenge, they were able to corner and capture two auxiliary cohorts whose grasping prefects had imprudently led in quest of plunder under unsafe conditions. By means of prodigal distribution of the prisoners and of their loot among other tribes, they were enticing them to revolt against us. It was at this critical moment that Ostorius, drained of energy by the constant burden and responsibilities of command, died, to the relief of the enemy, exulting that so capable a general, if not in combat with them, had certainly fallen in consequence of a war of their making.
XL.
At Caesar cognita morte legati, ne provincia sine rectore foret, A. Didium suffecit. is propere vectus non tamen integras res invenit, adversa interim legionis pugna, cui Manlius Valens praeerat; auctaque et apud hostis eius rei fama, quo venientem ducem exterrerent, atque illo augente audita, ut maior laus compositis et, si duravissent, venia iustior tribueretur. Silures id quoque damnum intulerant lateque persultabant, donec adcursu Didii pellerentur. sed post captum Caratacum praecipuus scientia rei militaris Venutius, e Brigantum civitate, ut supra memoravi, fidusque diu et Romanis armis defensus, cum Cartimanduam reginam matrimonio teneret; mox orto discidio et statim bello etiam adversus nos hostilia induerat, sed primo tantum inter ipsos certabatur, callidisque Cartimandua artibus fratrem ac propinquos Venutii intercepit. inde accensi hostes, stimulante ignominia, ne feminae imperio subderentur, valida et lecta armis iuventus regnum eius invadunt. quod nobis praevisum, et missae auxilio cohortes acre proelium fecere, cuius initio ambiguo finis laetior fuit. neque dispari eventu pugnatum a legione, cui Caesius Nasica praeerat; nam Didius senectute gravis et multa copia honorum per ministros agere et arcere hostem satis habebat. haec, quamquam a duobus pro praetoribus pluris per annos gesta, coniunxi ne divisa haud perinde ad memoriam sui valerent: ad temporum ordinem redeo.
40.
The emperor, on receiving notice of Ostorius’ death, sent Aulus Didius Gallus in his place, not wanting to leave the province without a governor. Didius wasted no time to reach Britain, but a worsening of the situation had already occurred, the legion headed by Manlius Valens having sustained a rebuff in the field, something both the enemy and Didius himself greatly magnified beyond its actual gravity, the first to frighten the incoming governor, the second to gain more glory if he subdued the rebels and to have a more creditable excuse in case resistance should prove too strong to be contained. It was the Silures again who had dealt the new blow, then kept on ransacking the region near and far, until they were checked by Didius’ arrival. After Caratacus’ capture, however, the most qualified man in the science of war among the natives was Venutius of the Brigantes, as I have already mentioned. As long as he was the husband of queen Cartimandua, he remained steadily loyal to us under the protection of Roman arms. Later, a division arose in the married couple, soon followed by war, and even Venutius took on a stance adversarial to Rome, though the fighting at first remained confined between the two. By an astute move, Cartimandua was able to capture the brothers and other relatives of Venutius. Her opponents were incensed by the shameful prospect of becoming subject to a woman, and invaded her kingdom with an elite force of young warriors. This had been anticipated by our side and auxiliary cohorts were sent in her support. The clash had dubious results at first, but the final outcome was more in our favor. Similar was the conclusion of a battle fought by the legion under the command of Caesius Nasica, for Didius, burdened by age and honors, preferred to maintain a defensive posture, and let his subordinates engage in offensive operations. These incidents took place under two imperial legates over a series of years, but I have placed them together here for fear that, if narrated separately, their importance would not impress itself equally well on the mind of the readers. Now I resume the record of events year after year.